The Great Mongolian Raid Of Georgia And The Siege Tower Of Corpses
By late 1220, after being relentlessly pursued for months by Genghis Khan’s generals Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad II of Khwarazm, wearing a torn shirt, died exhausted, poor, and from pleurisy. With the death of the Shah, Genghis Khan had received reports of a territory where “narrow-faced men with light hair and blue eyes” lived beyond the Caspian Sea. The Mongol forces analyzed their newly acquired intelligence, accumulated during the pursuit of the Shah, and turned their eyes to the west – the prelude to the great raid into Europe had begun, with a siege tower built of corpses, but this was just an omen of what Europe was to experience 16 years later.
Advancing On Azerbaijan
After reporting the death of the Shah to Genghis Khan at his camp at Samarkand, the Mongol general Subotai returned to the Caspian flats, where his army of 20,000 to 30,000 men had bivouacked for the winter and immediately began planning the next objective with fellow commander Jebe for the summer of 1220. During their military pursuit to capture the Shah, Subotai and Jebe had accumulated intelligence through active and passive reconnaissance as they moved westward. Every town, city and travelling caravan they came across provided the Mongols with a plethora of local and regional information. This allowed them to place and recruit a network of local contacts and spies in many quarters. However, one questions piqued their interest: What was beyond Khwarazm’s western borders? Subotai and Jebe constructed a map of the Transcaucasia infrastructure.
Subotai’s target was the Kingdom of Georgia, for intelligence reports had described Georgia as a worthy foe, known for its armorers, sword-makers, and warriors, particularly the royal household, consisting of over 30,000 Cuman cavalry bodyguards. Subotai and Jebe’s strategy was to focus first on one of Georgia’s vassals, who happened to be close to them. That vassal state was Azerbaijan and the city of Tabriz which reportedly held a considerable amount of riches. The town was a soft target. Subotai’s objective was twofold. Firstly, to loot the riches, and secondly, to test Georgia’s sphere of influence and military capabilities over the region.
As word spread throughout the Caucasus region of the Mongols toppling the Khwarazmian Empire, pockets of Kurdish and Turcoman irregular guerrilla freebooters - a reported 6,000 men or 12,000 according to an Armenian source - seeking wealth and adventure, offered their services to Subotai and Jebe as they entered Azerbaijan. Subotai accepted their service and proceeded towards Tabriz.
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As Subotai’s army approached Tabriz in the fall of 1220, the vassal Atabeg Uzbek hastily dispatched messengers to King George IV of Georgia, informing him of the Mongol incursion. However, King George blew off the request for aid, since he was preparing for the Sixth Crusade and had no time for some petty nomadic raiders. Once the Mongol forces arrived outside the city, Subotai threatened Uzbek that he would burn down the city if Uzbek did not pay ransom and provide supplies. Knowing he had been abandoned to his fate by King George, Uzbek submitted to Subotai’s demands and gave Subotai money, cattle, and military supplies. Subotai accepted the offer and left.
With his loot in hand, Subotai moved his army north-east to the rich pastures of the Mugan plain, as winter was settling in and the horses needed to graze. Not only did the Mugan plain provide Subotai with fodder for the horses, but it also provided protection for the army with the Caspian Sea to the east, the Kura River to the north, the Aras River to the west, and various mountain ranges to the south just north of Tabriz. Subotai had ample time to prepare for his next objective.
The Ruse Of The Cross
One would think Subotai’s next course of action would have been to travel back east towards the Caspian Sea and turn north following the coastline into the Pontic–Caspian steppe or explore deeper into the Caucasus before heading north into the steppe. He chose the Caucasus. While the move seems risky and unnecessary, it was typical of Subotai’s style, for although Subotai and Jebe were explorers, they were also on an exploratory raid.
Jebe: Genghis Khan’s Would-be Assassin Becomes His Sharpshooting General
Subotai: The Forgotten Force Behind the Fearsome Mongol Military
How Did They Do It? Masters of the Steppe: The Gear and Guts of the Mongol Military
During the winter of 1220-1221, Subotai collected every bit of information from the Kurdish and Turcoman forces who had joined the Mongol ranks. Without a doubt Subotai also sent scouts throughout Georgia to verify and gain additional information. The intelligence collected indicated that the Georgian army was not able to fully mobilize, yet Subotai decided not to risk his whole army. Instead, he sent two-thirds of the Mongol forces into the great valley, with one-third ahead of the main forces. The remaining Mongol force stayed behind with the loot. The luring force of an estimated 8,000 men, consisting of Kurdish and Turcoman forces, slowly advanced into Georgia, to test Georgia’s security abilities. Subotai knew that once such a force began to move towards the Georgian capital of Tbilisi, it would set off a series of alarms causing the local army to mobilize. Therefore, he decided to play it safe at a slow pace.
In February 1221, a messenger arrived at Tbilisi that the Mongols were advancing, carrying a cross. Intelligence had made it known that the Georgian army was preparing to join the Sixth Crusade and that any army was welcomed to join in that endeavor. Therefore Subotai and Jebe decided that they too ‘would take up the cross’ and join King George IV in his quest to recapture the Holy Land. However, it was a ruse where Subotai and Jebe reckoned that the Georgian army would lower its guard and welcome the Mongols as allies, when they advanced carrying a cross.
King George hastily sent word to mobilize a force consisting of roughly 10,000 men to meet the potential intruders. The Georgian army was a worthy foe as they resembled and fought like the Turkish cavalry, well armored with lance and bow in hand. The Mongols and their Kurdish and Turcoman allies were primarily light horse archers with a small or medium contingent of heavy cavalry. Armenian and Muslim sources do not mention the battle's location by name. However, it would not be unreasonable to suggest that the engagement took place along the Kura River. The Georgian army eventually came to a halt when the Mongols were visible in the distance. Seeing the cross in hand, the Georgians appeared to have lowered their guard and fell for the ruse.
Unleashing Hell On King George IV
Once the cross was dropped, Suboati gave the order to unleash hell. The Mongol horse archers showered the compacted Georgian army with a massive volley of arrows. However, the Georgian forces did not move, suggesting that they lacked a light cavalry unit to counter the Mongols. King George knew that his cavalry could not chase down the enemy and decided to stand his ground. To give chase was risky, given that the enemy potentially had cavalry waiting to ambush them. Since the enemy would not budge, Subotai ordered his horse archers to sweep across, firing into the enemy ranks. After a few frontal sweeps failed to produce a reaction, Subotai ordered his horse archers to deliver a constant barrage of arrows until they flinched.
Subotai’s strategy, one can argue at this point, was that if the enemy did not budge, he would reduce their ranks through attrition, which would have had two potential outcomes. Firstly, the psychological effect of not being able to counter the enemy effectively would have caused them to retreat. This would have allowed Subotai the ability to chase after the enemy and continue pelting them with extreme caution. Secondly, the enemy forces would have succumbed to the psychological impact of the relentless volley of arrows raining down on them, killing and maiming many. With their ranks dwindling, King George decided to chase the Mongol horse archers, thus falling into Subotai's trap.
Seeing the Georgian cavalry advance, the Mongol horse archers feinted, only to stop, stand their ground, fire as many arrows as possible before repeating the same tactic. As the Mongol forces continued to retreat further, they began to disperse in multiple directions. King George understood that if he were to hold the line and stay in formation, his flanks and rear would be vulnerable. Therefore, King George decided to disperse his forces and chase after the enemy. The Georgian forces were heavier, slower, and their horses tired quickly, making them a prime target. Being much lighter and swifter, the Mongol horse archers had fled out of sight towards fresh mounts hidden in the woodlands.
Once the Mongol forces mounted their fresh horses, Subotai and Jebe waited. As the dispersed Georgian forces came within range, the Mongol horse archers appeared before the enemy, re-organized, and counter-attacked. The Georgian forces were startled and acted quickly, but it was too late. One can speculate that Suboati waited until the Georgian forces were nearly regrouped before attacking. At the right moment, Subotai ordered his horse archers to attack. With the Georgian army neatly sandwiched in between, the Mongols conducted a double envelopment and showered the Georgian army with arrows. They had nowhere to run. They could not counter-attack and would be cut down if they retreated. The only option was to sit still and hold together, but even this was futile. The Georgian forces, unable to move due to the rain of arrows coming from all sides, were in for another surprise.
As the rain of arrows subsided, the thunderous sound of hooves could be heard. The Mongol horse archers quickly opened their ranks. The Georgian forces, caught off guard again, braced for the coming impact of the Mongol heavy cavalry. Again, the Georgian forces could do little to counter the blow. The Mongol heavy cavalry drove a wedge into the Georgian forces. Facing defeat, King George ordered the retreat, and his forces fled as fast as their tired mounts allowed them. Some Georgian knights made a stand but were slaughtered by Jebe’s forces. King George eventually, with what was left of his men, made it back to Tiflis, where they waited for the Mongol army. After two weeks, there was no sign of them. It is as if the Mongol army had just vanished into thin air.
Sidetracked By Genghis
After the battle, Subotai and Jebe returned to the Mugan Plain. As the Mongols camped, King George sent a proposition to Uzbek that their forces unite to rid themselves of the Mongol menace, during the coming spring. While the Georgian forces prepared for another incoming attack, a messenger arrived for Subotai, informing him that he needed to move south into northern Iran. The reason for this request was to secure the north from a potential flank attack as Genghis’ armies marched on Nishapur and the cities of western Khwarazm in early spring. Moreover, it gave Subotai and Jebe a chance to acquire fresh mounts and men. Muslim sources mention that when Subotai and Jebe moved south, they attacked the city of Maragha and eventually overpowered the defenses of the city by using Muslim captives as human shields to cover their men. Once the defensives were overpowered, the sacking began and lasted for a few days, ending on March 30. After the raid, Subotai and Jebe divided their forces. Subotai stayed in the area, to keep an eye on Tabriz, while Jebe headed south towards Hamadan.
While Subotai and Jebe were busy in Georgia, a former slave by the name of Jamal al-Din Aybeh, had stirred up sedition in Hamadan. He “killed the shahna of Hamadan, seized Ala' al-Dawla for having submitted, and imprisoned him in the castle of Girit, a dependency of Lur.” Once Jebe was outside the walls of Hamadan, Jamal al-Din Aybeh and his followers surrendered, hoping for forgiveness. Jebe, one would assume, was perplexed by this. A man, who had incited a rebellion and killed or imprisoned the local leaders because they submitted to Mongol rule, was asking his forgiveness for his actions. Jebe had them executed and “laid siege to the city and carried out a general massacre,” which quickly materialized into a three-day event of hand-to-hand street combatting, after Jebe’s men had found a secret passage into the city. With Hamadan wasted, the Mongols pressed on to attack Ardabil, where they slaughtered the population. Some sources say they passed Sarab while others say they besieged Sarab along with Bailakan before meeting up with Subotai in Tabriz again. All of this appears to have taken place between August and September 1221. From October to November, the Mongols waited before making a move north again into Georgia. However, they were not idle as they sacked the Selmas and Khoy before making their way to Nakhichevan to extract payment.
Subotai and Jebe were buying time waiting for the Georgian winter to set in before making their move. The reason for this is that after the first contact was made, both generals had a glimpse of the tactics of the army they had previously defeated. Military intelligence gathering and past experiences of engaging other armies suggested that the army they were about to face, was not keen on winter combat. As winter set in, the Mongols advanced north from the Mugan Plain and sacked Bailakan, bypassed Ganja, and raided Georgia in November 1221.
Besieging Shirvan: The Tower Of The Corpses
The question arises: Why did the Mongols not bypass Georgia and their allies’ defenses and make a break to cross over the Caucasus? Subotai and Jebe understood the fragility of this expedition that such a move would have been risky. They were familiar with the territory at hand, but anything beyond that was culturally and politically terra incognita, not to mention perhaps the chance to encounter an army far superior to their own.
Subotai understood that crossing into Georgian territory seeking a pitched battle during winter conditions would waste time. To draw the enemy out, Subotai and Jebe resorted to raiding, starting with the province of Shirvan. However, this failed to draw them out. Seeing that the Georgian king would not assemble his forces, Subotai decided if raiding did not draw them to battle, he would sack cities, starting with the capital of Shirvan, Shemakha.
With scouts riding to and fro from the Mongol force, they informed Subotai that the coast was clear to besiege Shemakha. Rashid, the Shah of Shirvan, fled Shemakha for Derbent when word reached him that the Mongols were heading towards the city. When the Mongol forces arrived outside the walls of Shemakha, they quickly set up shop as time was of the essence. With the city surrounded, scouts continued to reconnoiter the countryside in case the Georgian forces showed up.
However, Subotai had one problem, he had no siege equipment. Of course, Subotai and Jebe’s mission was not designed for long-term sieges during their great raid. Nevertheless, this was not an issue. There is no doubt that the Mongols had built or captured ladders from previous sieges. In the case of Shemakha, it appears that the Mongols showered the city with arrows while men with ladders rushed forward to scale the walls. This strategy failed, because firing arrows up and over the walls achieved no impact. The Mongol horse archers were firing blind. Realizing that situation was bleak, Subotai and Jebe came up with a solution. In order to take the city, they needed eyes on the ground, and the only way to do that was to build a tower from which to fire on the defenders below. Since they had no wood to build a siege tower, the Mongols decided to use the corpses of the dead. “It is reported otherwise, that they gathered together some [dead] camels, cattle, sheep and other animals and the corpses of some local victims and of others, threw them on top of one another until they made a sort of hill, which they climbed and so dominated the town”.
A grotesque hill built with the dead and dying allowed the Mongol archers to dismount, spot their targets down below, and pick them off the walls. This enabled the dismounted Mongol troops to rush forward with ladders to scale the walls, while under cover of their archers. After three days of heavy fighting, the city capitulated, and a massacre ensued. When word reached King George of the news, he had no choice but to mobilize his forces and engage the Mongols.
With Shemakha sacked, Subotai and Jebe prepared to head north due to the news that Rashid, the Shah of Shirvan, had fled from Shemakha to the fortress of Derbent, when he had received word that the Mongols were advancing. However, as the Mongol forces moved out and planned to make their way north, Subotai received word that the Georgian army of 30,000 led by King George was drawing near.
The Second Battle of the Kura Plain
Both armies would engage in battle on a much narrower terrain than their previous encounter. To the east lay the steep foothills of the Dagestan mountain range, but between the hills lay a narrow pass, where Subotai positioned 5,000 men under the command of Jebe. Subotai, like the Georgian forces, learnt from mistakes made during previous engagements. While the Mongols were confident in their battlefield tactics, the Georgians had also learnt from their mistakes. This time as the Georgian forces advanced they did not disperse but stayed in a pack formation, believing in strength in numbers. The Mongol forces, under the command of Subotai, rushed forward towards the Georgians and fired a volley of arrows just out of range of their intended target. Subotai intended to get their attention and hoped that part of the Georgian forces would break rank and charge. However, this was not the case. Seeing that the Georgian forces did not budge, Subotai ordered more arrows to be fired and to fall short of the front rank to antagonize them.
However, the Georgian forces had learnt from the last battle and did not break ranks. Since the Georgian forces did not give chase, a slow chase had to suffice. As the Georgian forces continued to follow Subotai, they were eventually lured into the crosshairs of Jebe’s forces, hidden in the narrow pass, out of sight. Jebe gave the command to charge and caught the Georgian army off guard. The Georgian army turned and engaged Jebe. One would think that some of the Georgians would have chased after Subotai, but they did not. The reason for this appears that right before Subotai reached the pass, he may have ordered his army to flee, giving the impression that the Mongols were retreating. With the Georgian forces fully engaged with Jebe, Subotai wheeled his forces around and came charging back, crashing into the Georgian flank, causing confusion and chaos. The result was a slaughtered Georgian army. Only a few escaped, including the badly wounded King George IV. He died a year later from his wounds, and his sister, Queen Rusudan, succeeded him.
Queen Rusudan would send multiple letters to crusaders and the Pope, pleading for help and excusing Georgia from the planned crusade: “A savage people of Tartars, hellish of aspect, as voracious as wolves in their hunger for spoils as they are brave as lions, have invaded my country . . . The brave knighthood of Georgia has hunted them down out of the country, killing 25,000 of the invaders. But, alas, we are no longer in a position to take up the Cross as we had promised your Holiness to do”.
However, the Mongols, “hellish of aspect”, had no intention to conquer Georgia. Their quest lay to the west, to the lands of the “narrow-faced men with light hair and blue eyes.” The Mongolian invasion was far from over.
Cam Rea is an author and military historian. He has written numerous articles for Ancient Origins, Classical Wisdom Weekly, and has authored several books, including: The Wars of Israel: A Military History of Ancient Israel from the End of Judges to Solomon
Top Image: A Mongol melee in the 13th century. (Public Domain)
By: Cam Rea