Origins of the Marduk Mythos in Ancient Akkad
The greatness of the world’s first empire, the Akkadian Empire (c. 2370-2190 BC), had a major impact on later Mesopotamian tradition. Once the stories about those kings and the gods who gave them those victories took hold in the popular imagination, they became the stuff that great legends and myths are made of. Some of the greatest Babylonian, Canaanite, Greek, Egyptian, Persian, Indian and other legends and myths can be tracked down to stories once told about those rulers as has recently been shown in the work of Willem McLoud, Dragon Seed (2025) and The Nephilim: Kings of An Epic Age (2021).
Of particular interest is the way in which these legends and myths complement each other on the human level and the divine sphere. In time, these legends lost all direct connection with the historical kings involved in them and were taken up and became absorbed into other cultures as part of their own prehistories. On the divine level, similar myths were told about the great gods of those peoples. Like two parallel universes, the great stories once told about the Akkadian Emperors, especially those about Naram-Sin, were reflected in the divine realm where similar stories were told about the gods. This goes back to the time of Naram-Sin when his heroic tales were matched by the mythos ascribed to gods such as Tispak and Samas.
An important event in the religious history of Mesopotamia that followed the Babylonian conquest of the land was the rise of Marduk as the new king of the gods in Babylon. Although the rise of Marduk is often viewed purely in Babylonian terms, this is actually not correct. We should rather look at the elevation of Marduk within the context of the preceding events in Mesopotamia and more specifically those of the Akkadian Period. This becomes crystal clear once we discover that the mythology associated with Marduk originated in the mythos of the divine Naram-Sin. Marduk’s glorious feats, in actual fact, go back to the mythos of Naram-Sin himself!
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Origins of Marduk’s Mythos
Marduk was the chief god of the Babylonians, who rose to power in the latter part of the Isin-Larsa Period (c. 2060-1818 BC), during the 19th century BC. The Babylonians became the new rulers of the ancient land of Sumer and Akkad when Hammurabi of Babylon (fl. c. 1848-1806), known for his famous code of law, became overlord of Mesopotamia in 1818 BC, starting the so-called Old Babylonian Period.
The scholar, Henry Frankfort (1897-1954), recognised that the origins of the Marduk mythology go back to the Akkadian Period. In an article titled Gods and Myths on Sargonic Seals (Iraq 1:1-29) and published in 1934, this great Dutch archaeologist, one of the few scholars who was both an Egyptologist and Orientalist, observed that the iconography of the sun god in the Akkadian iconography bears a striking correspondence with the mythology of Marduk.
Based on this similarity, Frankfort proposed that the mythology of Marduk may, at least in part, have had its origins in the Akkadian Period: “These (Akkadian seals) seem to show… that some of the most important beliefs which underlie the New Year’s festival in New Babylonian times, and could therefore be traced back, at most, to the period of Hammurabi, existed already under the dynasty of Sargon of Akkad.”
This proposal is supported by the view expressed by scholars like Thorkild Jacobsen that when Hammurabi of Babylon conquered Esnunna, the city of the god, Tispak, in c. 1817 BC, his god, Marduk, inherited Tispak’s dragon, which implies that he also took over and acquired Tispak’s mythology. Marduk’s glorious feats, vividly described in the Babylonian epic of creation, the Enuma Elish, therefore go back to the mythos of Tispak, which was in turn derived from that of Naram-Sin himself.
Tispak and His Dragon
Tispak first appears on seals dating from the Akkadian Period, when he replaced the earlier god of Eshnunna, namely Ninazu, “king of snakes”. Some scholars have proposed that Tispak was an adaptation of the Hurrian weather god, Teššub, counterpart of the Semitic god, Adad. Tispak evolved as a new god from the particular circumstances of the Akkadian Period. He was a great warrior god, described on one Akkadian seal inscription as “Tispak, warrior of the gods”.
Tispak fought against and subjected the dragon-monster called Labbu, a creation of the Sea (tiamtum). Scholars have suggested that the Sea here refers to the mythological monster, Tiamat, in its earliest form. Tiamat was the embodiment of the Sea and the mother of all monstrous beings. According to the stories told about Tispak in later ages, Enlil created this monster, a steward of Tiamat, in order to destroy humankind.
Tispak’s dragon-monster acquired the lion and snake features of the mushussu snake-dragon, the “furious snake”, which formerly belonged to Ninazu, with bird features added to it. As such, it comprised of lion, bird and snake features, possessing the head of a lion or snake, the horns of a horned viper, the front legs of a lion and the hind legs of a bird of prey.
But let us take a closer look at the Tispak dragon-monster itself. In one text, the dragon is described as a snake with seven tongues, meaning it had seven heads. An Akkadian Period seal impression from Eshnunna clearly shows this monster with its seven heads and two heroes attacking it. Here, the text and iconography align with Naram-Sin’s heroic tales in which the hordes who invaded the land during the time of the Great Revolt against his rule are led by the “seven sons” of Anubanini. The iconography of the dragon with seven heads, as well as the myth of this Akkadian dragon, was based on earlier themes from Eshnunna in which a seven-headed monster features. On a restored Sumerian seal impression, the dragon-monster is shown with only five heads. The hero, who overcame and defeated the dragon, is shown holding the other two heads in his hands.
After Tispak fought against and subjected the dragon-monster, he became king. He is shown sitting on a throne holding the rod and ring of kingship with the defeated and tamed dragon lying at his feet. On one seal depiction, Tispak is shown defeating his enemies with the dragon by his side.
On both a rock relief from Eshnunna as well as a seal, two smaller figures appear, one on Tispak’s right- and one on his left-hand side. These are similar to the two maces in the hands of Ninazu, the earlier god of Eshnunna, called “Hero of the Right Hand” and “Hero of the Left Hand”. Tispak took these maces over from Ninazu in the same way he did with the dragon-monster. In time, the Tispak-dragon became the primary symbol associated with kingship in ancient Mesopotamia.
Marduk Battles Enemy Hordes
Marduk’s mythology is told in the Babylonian creation epic, the Enuma Elish, which was re-enacted during the New Year’s festivals. According to this myth, the mother of monsters, Tiamat, decides to destroy the younger gods. They turn to Marduk, son of Enki, for help. He agrees to lead them in the war on one condition, namely that they would choose him as king of the gods after achieving victory. And this is indeed how events unfold, with Marduk replacing Enlil, the previous king of the gods, and becoming the new king of the Babylonian gods.
Marduk’s enemies include Tiamat, her monsters and the Anunna gods, described as “rebels”. Also counted among these enemies were the mushussu dragon-monster (Tispak’s monster) and the ugallu. The monsters were creations of Apsu and Tiamat: “Apsu, the first, their progenitor. Creative Tiamat who bore them all.” In general, Tiamat’s army is denoted by the term, umu (Ud). They are “Evil Days” or “Evil Storm Clouds”.
They turn out to be a formidable army:
“Mother Hubur [River]—molding everything—added irresistible weapons, bore monster serpents, sharp-toothed, with fang unsparing, fitted their bodies with poison for blood. Fierce dragons she clothed in terrors, crowned them with glories and made them like gods.”
Tiamat then appoints Kingu, father of seven sons, as leader of her army.
Although we do not read that Marduk encounters any setbacks in confronting this multitude (as happened to Naram-Sin in his epic tales), we do find that he was confined in a “mountain” during the New Year’s festival, according to the Marduk Ordeal Text. This text is often understood as saying that the god was taken to the netherworld before being resurrected again. These events had a counterpart in the celebration of the barley planting season during the New Year’s festival, featuring the seasonal “death and resurrection” of barley.
On the seventh day, Marduk’s son, Nabu, frees him from his confines. He then charges with his “storm chariot”, drawn by four horses, against the hordes of Tiamat. In his hands, he holds deadly weapons, the “Sar.ur” and “Sar.gaz”. When the enemy sees his glorious appearance, they flee instantly: “(He) caused all the fugitive gods to enter again into their chambers.”
Marduk brings about mighty winds, casting them at the enemy. When Tiamat swallows the storm, he puts an arrow through her heart. He cuts her body in two, creating the vault of heaven from one part and the dry land from the other. On her chest, he piles up the distant mountains and from her eyes he creates the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
After Marduk subdues the mushussu dragon-monster, it becomes his servant and iconic symbol (as it was previously of Tispak). Marduk moreover places the trophies of the vanquished monsters at the entrance to the Apsu, where other gods and monsters are settled by him. As for the rebel gods, Marduk pardons them, whereupon they then build a temple for him in the city of Babylon. He also creates humans from Kingu’s blood to help the gods in their work.
Marduk and the Naram-Sin Legacy
We can now go ahead and compare the Marduk mythology with the Naram-Sin legends and mythos.
Marduk’s character as a storm god and the monster that becomes his servant (the winged weather beast with serpentine features) goes back to Tispak. What is more, two central strands in the two stories show a remarkably close correspondence with the Naram-Sin legends, namely Marduk’s role as champion of the younger gods, commanding them in their fight against the older Anunna gods, as well as the description of the enemy hordes. They form the major part of the Marduk mythology, sprinkled with elements of ancient Sumerian creation motifs from the Eridu milieu.
We do find that Naram-Sin is depicted as a great opponent of Enlil in the composition called Erra and Naram-Sin. This tradition could very well explain where the motif of Marduk as the great opponent of the older gods, the Anunna, originated from and which resulted in Marduk having replaced Enlil as king of the gods.
In Erra and Naram-Sin, Naram-Sin is not portrayed as an earthly ruler but as a god among the other gods. He is depicted, exactly like Marduk, as the champion of the younger gods who leads them in a battle against the older gods, in this case against Enlil, king of the gods! The god, Erra (Nergal), asks Naram-Sin to lead the attack and the goddess, Ishtar Annunitum, accompanies them. Although the story is about a war against enemies backed by Enlil, it is cast as a cosmic battle of the younger gods, led by Naram-Sin, against the older gods (Enlil).
This brings us to the description of Marduk’s enemies. As expected, the enemy hordes in the two traditions are depicted in the same way. In the Naram-Sin mythos we read about the invading horde against whom the young Naram-Sin had to engage in battle. In The Cuthean Legend the enemy horde is vividly described in the following terms:
“A people with partridge bodies, a race with raven faces, the great gods created them… Tiamat suckled them. Their progenitress, Belet-ili, made (them) beautiful. In the midst of the mountains, they grew up, reached man’s estate, and attained full status. Seven kings, brothers, resplendent with beauty, 360 000 were their troops, Anubanini was their father, the king, their mother was the queen Melili.”
Apparently, Naram-Sin needed to determine whether his enemies actually had real blood in their veins and carried out some tests on them. If real blood didn’t flow through their veins it would have meant that they were “(evil) spirits, messengers of Death, fiends, malevolent demons, creatures of Enlil”. Fortunately, however, as it turned out they were warm-blooded creatures with real blood flowing through their veins!
The language found in the Enuma Elish was taken from the Naram-Sin epics, where such descriptions appeared much earlier.
In both stories the enemy hordes do (or may) not have blood running in their veins. The term “rebellious gods” goes back to the Great Revolt against Naram-Sin and the depiction of them taking shelter in their holes comes directly from his heroic tales. Kingu and his seven sons merely replaced Anubanini and his seven sons.
Another fascinating aspect is the one about Marduk’s confinement, as if dead in a “mountain” during the New Year’s festival. Only after he was freed, he was able to vanquish his enemy. Something similar happened to Naram-Sin in The Cuthean Legend. According to this story, the enemy hordes got the upper hand and he “was bewildered, confused, sunk in gloom, desperate and dejected”. Then, after bringing the New Year’s offerings, he marched out victoriously.
Marduk becoming king of the gods might have been influenced by the Tispak mythos. Tispak was worshipped as a king among the gods, having been depicted as a king sitting on his throne. When Marduk took over the mythology of Tispak (and Naram-Sin), an essential part of that inheritance was divine kingship. This became realised in Marduk’s own kingship over the gods once the Babylonians conquered the land.
As for the Sar.ur and Sar.gaz weapons in Marduk’s hands, which also appear earlier in Ninurta’s hands, they are simply another version of Sullat and Hanis providing the weapons in Naram-Sin’s hands. Sullat and Hanis, or the weapons these gods provided, are the Old Akkadian counterpart of the Sumerian Sar.ur and Sar.gaz. And in the same way Marduk pardoned the rebellious gods who then erected a temple for him, Naram-Sin pardoned his enemies, for example, in Gula-AN and the Seventeen Kings against Naram-Sin. A temple was also built for him after his great victory.
The reference to the New Year’s festival in The Cuthean Legend is quite significant. It implies that the Marduk myth, recited during this festival, might go back to stories told about Naram-Sin during New Year’s celebrations (perhaps during autumn, in contrast with the well-known celebrations during spring), a practice that might have originated not long after his immense victory during the Great Revolt.
A Temple Build for the Victor
All these agreements suggest that the story about the temple built for Marduk originated from the temple built for the god, Naram-Sin, after his great victory. An Old Akkadian seal showing defeated gods building a temple actually exists. It depicts the gods in all kinds of activities related to the building of a temple. They are shown smaller than a larger god who dispatches his kneeling victim with a mace. This might be a depiction of Naram-Sin’s conquered enemies building his own temple for him after his victory and deification.
In the final instance, we find that the legends and myths of Marduk and Naram-Sin show such a close and detailed similarity on so many points that there can hardly be any doubt that the Marduk myth borrowed from a tradition which can be traced back to the historical circumstances surrounding Naram-Sin and his elevation to divinity and godhood and the legends and myths arising from it.
It is possible that elements of this mythos later survived in Jewish tradition where it became assimilated to traditions about the building of King Solomon’s temple. In this case, Ashmedai or Asmodeus, as he is also called, was the one who helped King Solomon with the building of the temple.
Willem McLoud is an independent scholar with a keen interest in ancient Middle Eastern and Mediterranean studies, Kantian philosophy and philosophy of science. Willem holds a PhD in Nuclear Physics (Nuclear Fusion) as well as three Masters’ degrees. He is an innovative thinker who produced original work in various fields published in peer-review journals, his research of and writing about the ancient world stretching over more than three decades.
His latest book, Dragon Seed: The Hurrians, Dragon-slayer Myths and Traditions of Giants (2025), is now available.
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Pre history and Archeology, are my favorite subjects to read and watch, As a travel specialist I have been to many places and I love the caves. it is very sad that people don't really know the past.
There is so much past.